People migrate to America

Reading Amy Tan's â€Å"Two Kinds† for the first time is confusing. The message is not quite clear until one studies the context of the story. The story deals with immigrants and the American expectation for success, but primarily of a daugthters relationship to her mother. â€Å"Two Kinds† tells the story of Jing-mei and her mother. Jing-mei's mother migrated to America after â€Å"losing everything in China. † When she was young, Jing-mei's mother told her the potential o being successful in America. â€Å"You can be a prodigy,† her mother says.Her mother had given Jing-mei piano lessons such that her talents will show. Eventhough Jing-mei recognizes that she has the talent, she refuses to give herself into it because she felt a sense of rebellion inside her. She was not able to show her true talents because of her own shortcomings. In the end her mother gives up her hopes for her daughter. The conflict lies within Jing-mei. She wants to be something els e and at the same time she wants just to be herself. She was at first just as excited to find her prodigy.But she felt the pressure coming from her mother and at the same time she felt impatient for it. Her mother. however, tried to impose to her what she cannot be. â€Å"I won't let her change me,† she tells herself in the mirror. Once she found out her inclination, she refused to pursue and sharpen it partly because of her defiance towards her mother. Her mother, on the other hand, acted the way she did because of her dream of success. People migrate to America in search of greener pastures, but scholars believe that what the immigrants could not achieve they pass to their sons or daughters.Jing-mei was a victim of such circumtance. Although, it was also the intention of her mother to see her daughter succeed in life, Jing-mei felt she's being pushed to something she's not. Jing-mei did not see that her mother had deep faith in her. Many years had passed before Jing-mei rea lized her mother's attempt to bring out her â€Å"prodigy† and found her true self. She had already realized her â€Å"prodigy† during the piano recital but she remained defiant. Even during her lessons, she knew she could be good at it, even become great with it.But she did not will it to happen. At her recital, she was confident she could do it, but because she did not take her lessons seriously, it ended shamefully for her and for her parents. When she grew old, her parents gave her as a gift the piano her mother bought for her when she was young. She was at first reluctant to accept it. Her mother explained: â€Å"this your piano†¦ Always your piano. You only one can play†¦ You have natural talent. You could be a genius if you want to. † Jing-mei found the gift as a peace offering.It gave her a chance to try again without feeling that she was doing it for the benefit of someone else. Playing it again, she found it easy enough to prove her mother ha d been right. In the end of the story where Jing-mei played the piano after some years without doing so, she played the â€Å"Pleading Child,† the same piece she played unsuccessfully during the recital. She also noticed for the first time the piece on the opposite side entitled â€Å"Perfectly Contented. † Jing-mei understood that she was playing two halves of the same song, and it reflected her feelings.She was the pleading child and when she realized her mother's intentions and trust to her, she became perfectly contented. The story's moral runs two ways. First is with the parents not to push their sons or daughters too hard as to give them a hard time. They are, after all, just children who does not understand the real world. Second is for the children to be obedient to their parents, for parents only want what is best for their children. A jing-mei's mother expressed: â€Å"Only two kinds of daughters†¦ Those who are obedient and those who follow their own m ind.† It was unfortunate that Jing-mei did not realize that her internal conflict did not arise from her mother's expectations but from the love and faith her mother had for her until her mother had already died. The story also points that one's â€Å"prodigy† lies in the person's will to succeed. Jing-mei's failure at the recital was because she lacked the will to succeed, and at the same time, her rebeliousness towards her mother. It could be said as well that had her mother not pushed her too hard, Jing-mei could have done better and she would have pursued it at her own will.I was not able to recognize the message the first time I read the story, most especially the connection of the piano pieces mentioned at the end: the â€Å"Pleading Child† and â€Å"Perfectly Contented. † But after reading it again and researching the context of the story, I came to appreciate it as giving lessons to parents and children. At the same time, the story also points to t he importance of will power to the success of a person. Defiance blinds us that even when we recognize our own strenghts and weaknesses, we sometimes refuse to let it show just to prove that others are wrong.We tell ourselves â€Å"I am who I am† without really knowing who we really are. But the beauty of it all is that at the end of the day, we will come to realize our own shortcomings when left to find who we really are by ourselves. Summing up the lesson given by the story, it is best to be both kinds: the kind that is obedient towards one's parents and the kind that follows one's own heart. It may not always be the case but, usually, once parents find out their child's talents, they can't help but enforce it, which, in the end, is best for the child. Show what you got and your parents will surely back you up. Works Cited Tan, Amy. â€Å"Two Kinds. †

Increase in discretionary time Essay

Teleshopping offers the possibility of increasing discretionary time by eliminating travel time for traditional shopping trips, and by speeding routine purchases. Intelligent agents, or pieces of software that search computer networks, will reduce our need to comparison shop to obtain the best price. Using intelligent agents to automate routine shopping for groceries and staple goods may give households more time for other activities. (Kare-Silver, 1998) Increases in leisure activities may have far-reaching social and environmental effects. Previously mentioned reductions in activity space, combined with increases in pedestrian and bicycle travel may make neighbourhood attractions more popular. Family ties may regain importance and discretionary time will be spent at home. Either way, increases in discretionary time will likely boost the economy as spending on leisure activities increases (Markham, 1998). If families and individuals use their new free time to go for drives in the country, we may see a reverse congestion problem, where roads are clear during the week and crowded on the weekends. Overall, the effects of discretionary time changes are very difficult to predict. Such changes may not produce any noticeable changes in our society or environment for a very long time. A revolution in the shopping environment is about to take place. But it won’t affect all consumers and impact all retailers immediately. And it will not replace the traditional shopping completely, because there are still many traditional social shoppers. Such as women, to go window-shopping is one of their natural instincts. It is impossible for them to do shopping at home always. What they enjoyed most are the social atmospheres of the malls. They like to have a chat with the sales people, they like to try the clothes on and then do some compare. This is what Teleshopping can not satisfy them. However, the shopping scene is changing, retailers will need to develop. Standing still carries a high risk of being disintermediated, cut out of the supply chain as Teleshopping grows. As they move into the next century retailers will have a range of options. At one extreme they could transfer their business to become a full electronic home-delivery operation gradually moving out of their physical retail estate. And an alternative they could look to revitalise their physical presence and evolve the store proposition to meet some of the changing consumer demands. 1 Anon (1998a) UK retail sales 160 billion pounds sterling by year 2000. Searchbank 2 Gingh G et al The Information Age IM3007 Participants Pack (1999) p9

Bariatric Surgery Essay

Obesity affects more than one-third of U.S. adults (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). Obesity is defined by World Health Organization as an individual that has a BMI greater than 30. Obesity alone can hinder a person’s daily living lifestyle. However along with obesity come several co-morbidities that can affect a person’s health and lifestyle in a negative way. Obesity related conditions include heart disease, stroke, type two diabetes, hypertension, sleep apnea, and asthma. One alternative solution for obese patients’ to improve their quality of life is bariatric surgery. Bariatric surgery is the only weight loss method proven to achieve lasting, long term results (Kaser & Kukla., 2009, p. 3). Bariatric surgery works on two principals: restriction and malabsorption (Kaser & Kukla. 2009 p. 3). Per Kaser & Kukla on page 3 of the Online Journal of Issues in Nursing there are 3 types of bariatric surgery available; One is the least invasive, uses an adjustable gastric band to adjust the size of the stomach and is reversible. The second one uses a sleeve that reduces the stomach and also eliminates some of the ghrelin hormone that is used to stimulate appetite. The last procedure divides the stomach to create 15-30 ml pouch and is connected directly to the small intestine. This procedure is the most common weight lost surgery performed in the US and makes up 80% of all bariatric procedures (Kaser & Kukla. 2009 p. 3). This paper will discuss the nurse’s role during the pre-op, intra-op, and post-op phases of bariatric surgery, including some of the complications that may arise, proper nursing interventions, and relevant nursing diagnoses with every phase of the patientâ⠂¬â„¢s procedure. Nurses play a large role in caring for patients who have bariatric surgery. The nurses’ role starts in the evaluation phase during office visits and all the way through to post-operative care  including follow up visits. During the preoperative phase the nurse works with the health care team of â€Å"†¦surgeons, dietitians, psychologist, bariatricians†¦during patient evaluation to help reinforce key points for successful surgical weight loss†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Kaser & Kukla, 2009, p. 2) and provide on-going education regarding the patient’s current diet and future diet, activity, and the available surgical procedure options. The nurse ensures that the surgery is appropriate by ensuring the person has â€Å"†¦.a BMI >40 or BMI >35 along with comorbid conditions, such as cardiovascular disease, sleep apnea, uncontrolled type two diabetes, and/or physical problems interfering with performance of daily activities† (Kaser & Kukla, 2009, p.2). In the obese patient, â€Å"minimizing risk factors is directly connected with patients’ assessment in the preoperative period. Important physiopathologic changes occur in the cardiovascular, respiratory and gastrointestinal systems† (Tanaka, D., & Peniche, A. 2009 p.619). Nursing diagnoses that should be considered for preoperative bariatric surgery would be knowledge deficit, anxiety, nutritional imbalance (more than the body requirements), risk for impaired skin integrity, and ineffective breathing pattern related to morbid obesity and/or comorbidities (Drake, McAuliffe. 2012 p.6). â€Å"The key to an effective and safe bariatric patient handling program is to be prepared prior to the admission† (Muir & Archer-Heese, 2009, pg.2). â€Å"Studies have demonstrated that over 50% of bariatric-surgery patients have a concurrent diagnosis of anxiety, depression, or a psychological disorder† (Kaser & Kukla, 2009, p.6). â€Å"Ensure the patient understands the lifestyle changes that are required for a safe, successful, postoperative course including a lifelong commitment to revised eating patterns, vitamin supplementation, and regular monitoring by their healthcare provider† (Kaser & Kukla, 2009, p. 2). The nurse can provide care during the intraoperative phase by making sure the operating room is sufficient in size, the equipment can accommodate obese patient size by having stretchers with a 1,000 pound capacity and extra width, bariatric bed with expandable deck with power assisted for moving, and a built-in scale (Muir & Kukla 2009 p. 4). Some of the most frequently practiced nursing diagnoses for the patient during bariatric surgery would be risk for ineffective airway, and risk for hypothermia. Bariatric surgery patients are especially susceptible to an ineffective airway during surgery because  these patients â€Å"†¦tend to have decreased lung expansion due to an elevated diaph ragm as well as less compliant lungs and chest walls†¦layers of fat on the chest wall and abdomen along with an elevated diaphragm increase the work of breathing† (Drake, D. J., & Lopez, C. C., 2005, p.5). It is the nurse’s job to closely monitor the patient’s work of breathing during surgery to ensure no complications arise. Along with the post-op phase of bariatric surgery come an array of nursing interventions and much needed education for the patient. While the patient is fully aware of the lifestyle changes they must make before surgery is even performed, it now comes to a point where they must act on those changes with full confidence and tenacity if the procedure is to be a life-long success. Some common nursing diagnoses for post-op bariatric surgery include risk for nutritional imbalance (less than body requirements), risk for infection, risk for unstable blood glucose level, risk for impaired tissue integrity, mainly the tissue lining the stomach, and readiness for enhanced self-health management. Diet must be completely altered following surgery. Bariatric surgery patients are given a â€Å"strict diet post-operatively that regulates the consistency, volume, nutritional and chemical makeup of foods†¦nurses must understand diet recommendations for the immediate postoperative period and ass ist the patient in understanding the importance of adherence† (Drake, D. J., & Lopez, C. C., 2005, p.6). Diet compliance is of great importance, but there are other very important interventions to take into account after bariatric surgery. Three important aspects of nursing care include pain management, wound and skin care, and venous thromboembolism prophylaxis. â€Å"Pulmonary embolism is the second most common cause of mortality in bariatric-surgery patients† (Kaser & Kukla, 2009, p.4). DVT’s and VTE’s can be easily avoided when the proper nursing interventions are practiced. â€Å"†¦turning, coughing, and deep breathing (incentive spirometry) are the tried and true nursing interventions for pulmonary care in the postoperative surgical patient† (Kaser & Kukla, 2009, p.5). As with wound care, patients should be careful with coughing or possible nausea leading to vomiting due to chances of dehiscence of the surgical incision sites. Proper nursing care for wounds should be practiced, including â€Å"observing for signs of infection, and keeping the dressings clean and dry†¦treatment of nausea and prevention of vomiting are important during the postoperative phase† (Kaser  & Kukla, 2009, p.4). In conclusion the nurses’ role goes beyond providing direct nursing care in the preoperative, intraoperative, and postoperative phases. For nurses’ to be successful in caring for bariatric patients they need to look at their own personal attitudes and biases. Make sure they are treating the individual, not making assumption on the person’s character, intelligence, or health status based off their weight, be respectful and do not blame. Nurses need to treat the psychosocial aspect of the specific needs of the bariatric patient by giving them appropriate feedback and encourage healthful behaviors. All of these will make for a successful outcome for the patient. Bariatric surgery is a health promoting and life-sustaining intervention (Drake, D. J., & Lopez, C. C., 2005, p.7). REFERENCES Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Overweight and Obesity; Retrieved from: http://www.cdc.gov/obesity/data/adult.html Drake, D. J., & Lopez, C. C. (2005). Postoperative nursing care of patients after bariatric surgery. Perspectives, 6, 1-5. Grindel, M., & Grindel, C. (2006). Nursing care of the person having bariatric surgery. MEDSURG Nursing, 15(3), 129-146. Kaser, N., Kukla, A., (January 31, 2009). â€Å"Weight-Loss Surgery†. OJIN: The Online Journal of Issues in Nursing Vol. 14, No. 1, Manuscript 4. Retrieved from: http://nursingworld.org/MainMenuCategories/ANAMarketplace/ANAPeriodicals/OJIN/TableofContents/Vol142009/No1Jan09/Weight-Loss-Surgery.html Tanaka, D., & Peniche, A. (2009). Perioperative care for morbid obese patient undergoing bariatric surgery: challenges for nurses [Portuguese]. Acta Paulista De Enfermagem, 22(5), 618-623.

False Identity or Misrepresentation in Social Media Assignment

False Identity or Misrepresentation in Social Media - Assignment Example Criminals use this opportunity to get access to others’ profiles by sending friend requests. Once approved, they get access to the victim’s personal data, photographs and albums which they might forward to adult sites, or this may lead to telephonic conversations and meetings, and nobody knows about the consequences. The criminal can also adopt identity of real people by using their hacked photographs and information, for the purpose of attracting friends. This topic holds a strong place among ethical issues in e-marketing. Internet savvy persons are getting more and more informed about false e-marketing or fake e-business advertisements. False identity helps the criminal in preplanned attacks against payment systems like pensions and medical insurance. E-marketing ethics require that in order to carry out effective e-marketing, the e-marketer must base the business on honest grounds. If he is honest in displaying his identity, consumers will automatically come to him because e-consumers always do business with the names they can trust. Similarly, it is unethical to adopt the identity of another successful organization as doing so tends to bring harm to the reputation of the owner of the cloned identity. Here is an example when the issue was handled ethically. According to PR Log (2009), a Press Release, twenty fake identity factories had been sealed which were being operated by criminals who produced cloned driving licenses and utility bills. The Metropolitan Police was able to track down these factories in an Operation, arrested the criminals and closed the factories. If such criminals keep on getting caught, then this would be a good lesson for those who think of crossing the ethical boundaries in interacting with social media and in carrying out e-marketing. Let’s discuss an example when this issue was not handled ethically. Johnson (2010) revealed in her article that according

Administer & Monitor Medications in Work Environment Assignment - 1

Administer & Monitor Medications in Work Environment - Assignment Example er pregnancy unless the doctor measures Prothrombin frequently, ask if patient is under other drugs for treatment of TB, prevent blood clots, supplements containing vitamin K and antidepressant Binding to insulin receptors on cells in the body by making cells in liver, muscles and fat tissues to raise the uptake of glucose from the bloodstream and reduce the production of glucose by the liver hence controlling the glucose level Hypoglycaemia (common), skin thickening or pitting, redness, swelling at injection site, Excessive fluid retention (oedema), visual challenges and skin reactions such as itching, hives or rash. May be affected by ACE inhibitors like captopril, anabolic steroids e.g. stanozol, disopyramide, fibrates e.g. germfibrozil As a medical administrator I have to be certain that the physician’s order is complete and correct. I understand a compete order as a composition of the drugs’ name, dosage, frequency and route administration. An incomplete and unclear order should never be assumed and hence I have to consult with the ordering physician before proceeding (Bullock, & Galbraith, 2007). I have to be certain of the expiry date of drugs and ascertain that it is yet to expire. I always scrutinize the labels against the order. I ensure that I have proactively scrutinized medication features. I always discard the unclear medication that always found to appear cloudy and replace effectively (Bullock, & Galbraith, 2007). I should ensure that drugs that appear in single dose are sealed as required without tempering and not to store excess medications from single doses. I will always be keen to note that patients are prescribed a range of drugs simultaneously. Before I administer a particular I will check the drug interactions for each medication and validate with the patient’s chart to gauge contraindications or special precautions to be altered (Crisp & Taylor, 2009). In addition I do note the history of patient previous anaphylactic

Behavioral finance Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Behavioral finance - Assignment Example Modern financial economics are pegged on the assumption that financial practitioners act both meticulously and with rationale. However as evidenced and earlier stated, this is not always the case. These deviations from the norm are not rampant and inherent but follow a systematic chain of events. With this information in mind it is possible to incorporate these systematic human deviations into the standard model of financial markets (Rutledge 264). In so doing, two commonly overlooked mistakes come to the foreground: Financial practitioners tend to indulge in excessive trading with belief that the next trade will rake in more lucrative returns. This is irrational trading and is propelled by emotion rather than rational thinking. The human trait of being too overconfident or corky in this case is the key driving motivation behind this bias. Some financial practitioners are also in the habit of holding on to losing stocks while at the same selling their winning stocks. This again is in stigated by lack of confidence and the need to avoid both failure and regrets coupled with poor judgments. Behavioral finance contributes to asset pricing in two major dimensions. These dimensions are reached upon by use of agents which may in them are not completely rational. These are: I. Limits to arbitrage This argues that the damage caused by irrational traders in their irrational deviations may be difficult, if not impossible to be undone by the more rational trades. The traditional asset-pricing model does not factor in market frictions and greatly undermined trading frictions like transaction cost, bid spread, ask spread etc. These forces have a great impact on asset returns and therefore should not be ignored. The limits to arbitrage create a model where mispricing exist for the simple reason that risk adverse arbitragers are not concerned mainly with the riskless values of an asset, but about the price of assets in periods following these irrational traders. This model con siders the cost of arbitrage more so the volatility returns and states that the habit of mispricing will inevitably dominate markets especially in the cases of highly volatile stocks whereby arbitragers may avoid the risky volatile position. Finding mispricing is a tasking affair and may involve institutional laws that should regulate the type of trade to be done. For instance short selling which is essential to effective arbitrage including cost of borrowing, legal fees and liquidity risk is not allowed in mutual and pension funds. Therefore there should exist a cap on the limits to arbitrage. II. Psychology: This helps in creating a continuum of deviations spurning from full rationality to completely irrational. The known concept of asset pricing therefore is in a very vibrant flux whereby there is a slow paradigm shift from the completely irrational approach to a more accommodating broader outlook based on the psychology of investors. Risk and misevaluations are therefore the two main determinants of the security expected returns. This is roughly based on a concept by Savage (183) which is a decision making method with imminent or existing risks in consideration. This concept is known as the Subjective Expected Utility whereby it is widely

Electronic commerce purchase behavior Assignment

Electronic commerce purchase behavior - Assignment Example And these are to help to guide and provide important boundaries within which consumer motivations can be defined and utilised in discussions relating to online purchasing behaviours. Like most other fields, the field of online sales is generalised and critiqued appropriately through the segmentation of the markets and the identification of various interest groups and classes in the online buying population (Wu & Chou, 2011). The study indicates that databases are created as a means of providing links and procedures for the conduct of research and affairs in a given organisation and market in order to provide better and more predictable approaches and methods for data collection. There are two main variables that define the repurchase choices and decisions of people who purchase products and services on line: online relationship quality and perceived website quality (Zhanga, Fang, Wei, Ramsey, & McColee, 2011). These two variables culminate in perceived vendor expertise that builds a perceived reputation on the minds of consumers. That makes them repeat customers and clients in the organization. On the other hand, the risk and uncertainty provide a rationale for purchase whilst the intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation of the purchase lays the impetus for utilitarian value that guides purchase (Chiu, Wang, Fang, & Huang, 2014). In order to study consumer behaviour in e-commerce, some theorists identify that there are two main approaches to study and identify important factors that define the way consumer behaviour. The first is the theory of planned behaviour which relates to the actions and processes of previous e-commerce users (Del Bosque & Crespo, 2011). The second is the theory of technological acceptance which involves the new user who identifies the best approaches and systems that are used to guide the conduct of such persons (Del Bosque & Crespo, 2011). It was identified that third party support

Musical Jersey Boys Production analysis paper Assignment

Musical Jersey Boys Production analysis paper - Assignment Example When the group started, their story emerged as four stories. Each story represented one of their career season told by different members of the group. Their earliest beginnings occurred during spring. They harmonized this on a balmy evening under a street lamp. According to the group, the zenith of success is during the season of summer. The beginning of autumn is when their fortunes take a toll because the marriages and lives of the members of the group begin to unravel. According to the group, the winter season comes with a lot of reflection, sorrow, and solitude. There is, however, a wide variation when the recollection of individual members of the group is done with their historys broad outlines. It is from these members conflicting memories, torque and tension that the bounce of their music originates and thus revving their music further and thereby giving the group a momentum that is irresistible. The story of Jersey Boys occurs within a four seasons symbolic year though their stories cover a period of several decades in the life of the group. The group started their career in mid-1950s. It is when the rock and roll phenomenon metamorphosised into a lounge music and propriety staid era. It opened the doors and also vented the rebellion and the life force of a large new generation. The first two members of Jersey Boys Valli and Elvis recorded their first albums in 1953 and after that displayed staying unusual power. The Four Seasons hit the pop charts forty times in the 1960s, something unusual because most bands could have disintegrated. The strength of the four seasons was demonstrated when the group remained together under the onslaught of the added pressures of the Vietnam War, famous Rolling Stones to the American shores and the British invasion that brought the Beatles. It managed to bring the famous groups like the Boomers innocence, but the Four Seasons stayed and regr ouped where Gaudio and Valli partnered and sealed the

Federal Funding of Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research Paper

Federal Funding of Human Embryonic Stem Cell - Research Paper Example During the reign of President Bush, federal funding of human embryonic stem cell research stood banned since the administration opposed the practice. Even though the federal government does not fund research that involves the creation of embryos for purposes of research, President Obama’s administration lifted the ban. The federal government funds researchers that make use of embryos created in vitro fertilization but have stayed unused. However, the move by the federal government to provide funding for human embryonic stem cell research encourages other unethical practices such as abortion. Since these scientists remain prohibited from creating embryos for the research, they would turn to other alternatives to obtaining embryos. The justification used for the research would be that embryos couldn’t be considered human. This justification is likely to be used by unethical practitioners to support their misdemeanors, for instance, those conducting the abortion. Causes of the problem James Thomson initiated the human embryonic stem cell research in 1998. Several reasons became presented for the initiation of this research on the basis that stem cells have the potential to save lives. One such cause for embryonic stem cell research would be the development of rubella and polio as a resource for developing national policy and for local institutional review boards. This became founded on the premise that the research would develop considerable biomedical knowledge not obtainable by other methods. This problem intensified due to the impact of laws on the situation stem cell research developed. The Congress under President Reagan’s reelection in 1993 nullified the requirement for approval by the Ethics Advisory Board (EAB) on embryonic stem cell research. In addition, the Congress lifted a moratorium on federal funding of embryo research, which later became banned by the 1996 Congress (Holland et al. 27-29).

Analysis of the book First Globalization by Geoffrey C. Gunn Essay

Analysis of the book First Globalization by Geoffrey C. Gunn - Essay Example We will first focus on chapter seven of the book which is titled civilization encounters; this chapter focuses on civilization, Asia's first encounter with civilization was the arrival of missionaries and merchants. Although there was resistance to the Jesuit in china and the restriction of importing European text, there was a change in the people's way of life due to the western culture. People started to adopt the western culture and this can be termed as globalization. Catholic missionaries arrived in Japan in the year 1549, the missionaries were Portuguese and Spain sponsored Jesuits, religion was seen as an integral part of the state and also seen as having extra benefits other than spiritual benefits. Chapter six is entitled enlightenment views of Asian governance, this chapter focuses on the adoption of various forms of governments in Asia, there was high acceptance of forms of government which was influenced by earlier Jesuit writings, Baron however used travel literature to critique despotism in china and also Muslim courts, and it was Plato's idea that china be ruled by a king. The enlightenment of the whole of Asia through adoption of various forms of government also led to early ... Chapter eight is titled livelihoods, this chapter focuses on the introduction of records in Europe concerning Asia, and an example is Luis De Frois who wrote about the differences in early modernity between Japan and Europe, another example is the work of Marco Polo who wrote about the everyday life of china, this writings significantly changed the peoples way of life leading to people learning other languages and the emergence of the major European languages. Written literature worked as a way of popularizing the knowledge and ideas of a certain region, for example the invention of vital geographical knowledge by Europeans who also gained more information from the Arabs. This was aided by the invention of the print media in Europe leading to more and more regions being popularized. There was also the emergence of the alternative literature which was referred to as alternative due to the fact that it seemed to mock the real text, it was characterized by abstract scientific ideas and a good example is the well known book Gulliver travelers, this book however portrays a lot of Asian history and wisdom. Chapter nine is titled language, power and hegemony, the author describe the success of missionary in Asia as a result of mastering the Asian languages, the missionaries were the first lexicographers of the Asian languages while the Portuguese used their own language to their conquest or even worked with interpreters. European colonizers proclaimed the superiority of their language to their conquest and therefore through this there was the adoption of European languages. There was also the emergence of the translation of European literature that would as a result aid in scientific learning by various regions, this

Developmental theories Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Developmental theories - Term Paper Example Researchers assert that developmental theories give answers that open important ways or depths into human behaviors in studying causes of different experiences that human beings face. Developmental theories emanate from different schools of thought. From studies, there are various schools of thought that resulted to the developmental theories. They include Humanism, Behaviorism, Cognitivism, and Gestalt. Piaget’s Cognitive Development theory handles matters of human thinking. According to Piaget, the difference between children’s and adult’s thinking is qualitative other than being quantitative, as some people may have thought. In this theory we get to know that development occurs in distinct observable and more so measurable stages. The theory enlightens us that developmental growth is not affected by experience. According to Piaget, development is viewed to be unidirectional (Fletcher, 2005). Furthermore, according to Kohlberg, the theory of morality has several stages which include preconventional, conventional, and post conventional. He states that the degree of responsibility goes, with age where in middle childhood, children perceive themselves to be responsible for others around them. To this end it is seen that the theories do not cover all possible areas of human development and as a result, sub-divisions like those of Kohlberg will help clarify so many issues or answers (Sigelman, 2011). From many researchers, it is evident that the developmental theories are not original and base their roots deep down in different schools of thought. These schools include Gestalt, Psychoanalysis, Behaviorism, Cognitivism and Humanism. Therefore, a few factors seem to have been put together to make up the theories in meeting the need to answer some of the questions or explain some experiences in human development (Fletcher, 2005). Research shows that the stages in developmental theories are accurate and

Mass and Chemical Reactions Lab Essay Example for Free

Mass and Chemical Reactions Lab Essay Relationships in a Chemical Reaction Lab Introduction: This lab focused on mass relationships within a chemical reaction. To understand this lab first, it is necessary to understand the reaction that is going on in the reaction. The Copper (II) chloride hydrate reacts with Aluminum to produce Aluminum chloride, copper, and water. Theoretical yield and various other forms of yield must be understood too, theoretical yield is what amount of the product you should get theoretically according to your calculations; experimental yield is the product you get after you finish the experiment. Because of error usually your experimental yield will be off from your theoretical yield. Percent yield is the efficiency of the reaction to get to the theoretical yield. Data Collection And Processing: Raw Data: Table #1 : Substance / Object and Mass Table Substance / Object| Mass (Â ± 0. 01 g)| 200mL beaker| 67. 38 Â ± 0. 01 g| 200mL beaker + Copper| 69. 39 Â ± 0. 01 g| Copper| 2. 01 Â ± 0. 01 g| 200mL beaker + Dried Copper| 68. 01 Â ± 0. 01 g| Dried Copper| 0. 63 Â ± 0. 01 g| Qualitative Data: Before the reaction, the Copper (II) Chloride hydrate is a blue crystallized substance, the Aluminum was shiny and made crinkly sounds, it has a smooth metallic feel to it. During the reaction initially when stirred the water the water turns blue. When the aluminum is placed into the hydrous CuCl? the water becomes a darker murky substance. Steam is coming out of the water and aluminum is visibly dissolving. The aluminum is also turning black and vapor is forming along the sides. Foam like red pieces are forming and dropping. As the solid turns completely red the liquid is becoming clear again and is colorless.

The Role Of The Chorus In Sophocles English Literature Essay

The Role Of The Chorus In Sophocles English Literature Essay The Chorus plays a crucial role in the overall development of any Greek tragedy; they are responsible for providing the overall background and summary information of the play, alongside they interact with characters to develop the personalities of characters and drive the plot. However, both Sophocles and Aeschylus slightly adjust their attributes and overall significance in their plays. Through the explicit analysis of the function of the chorus, I hope to shed light on the similarities and differences in their duty within the respective plays. Right from the start in Antigone, it is clear that the chorus is composed mainly of male elders [that] represents the point of view of an average section of society, representing the extent of the patriarchal society in which the play is set and Antigone despised. However, it did automatically credit the chorus for the information and words of wisdom passed on because the elders themselves were once warriors and fought in battles in the past however with age they are limited to demonstrating their skills in words. As such, from the start of the play they can be seen to take on the role of advisors to King Creon. Throughout the play, the chorus can be seen responding to Creons actions as seen in line 204 when the Chorus states that No one is such a fool that he is in love with death, explaining to the King that no human would be foolish enough to defy the words of Creon, thus the act of burying must have been the God will. The Chorus is the first to suggest to Creon the religious implications of the dispute in regards to Polyneices and try to moderate between Haemon and Creon, however they are merely ignored and turned away from Creon; it is not only till Creon feels confused and distressed that the Chorus is able to uphold and be taken seriously. As such, the Chorus seems to prefer a cautious, discreet approach to matter, quite in contrast to the individualist, tragic heroism of the main character, Antigone in other words, the chorus has its continuous share in the drama, and has, in one way or another, its contribution to make, due regard being paid to its somewhat indefinite power. Indeed, this approach taken by the Chorus is vital in driving the plot of the play, as In addition, at first glance the chorus in Antigone may be misinterpreted as being fragile and feeble; indeed, it only seem to echo the commands and desires of King Creon, and does not stand up for themselves and take position with the rebellious Antigone. This is not an accident on Sophocles behalf. As observed throughout the play, the purposeful yielding as demonstrated by the chorus further enhances the impression of imperative nature of Creon against Antigone and the rest of the Greek population. From the above, it is clear that the Chorus plays a major role in the overall development of Antigone. Indeed, without the presence of the characteristic catalyst of the Chorus, Creon would never have changed is personality which would have led to the ultimate condemnation and death of Antigone the inevitable tragedy of the heroine. In Aeschylus Agamemnon, the Chorus can be seen to be acting as the narrative pendulum with time, interchanging between the past and present. This is in particular seen in the Parados where the Chorus creates a delaying effect; the storyline heads backwards rather than forwards in time, unlike the Watchmans speech which is substantially set in the present. The chorus in Agamemnon is composed mainly of old men fathers of sons who fought and died at the Battle Troy. The status of having fought in past battles and being able to recall the events bestows them with a form of credibility and ascendancy as old age leaves me fit for bravery only in song, which contracts their physical state physically unable to fight due to age. However, despite this physical disability they remain mentally strong and thus when it comes to advising Agamemnon the Chorus retains their confidence, unlike the Chorus in Antigone. However, quite in contrast, the Chorus in Agamemnon were born to sorrow. Indeed, such feeling of grief originates from the continuous agitation of their king, King Agamemnon. There are numerous reasons for the Chorus sorrow they believe that he has demonstrated disrespect and audacity against the Greek gods, know of the Kings refusal of an offer of alliance from his enemies from Argos and guiltily acknowledge that they themselves suggested adverse thoughts against Agamemnon. From such descriptions one can easily attest and justify the corruption and feebleness of the king. However, the victory in the expedition to Troy acted as a major counterweight against such negative portrayal and can be instead be seen as the agent of Zeus and the leader of a crusade to enforce Zeus justice. With such contradictions, it was inevitable for the chorus to become disarray when allegorizing and illustrating Agamemnon. Indeed, he was, in present, a national hero; his success in Troy has resulted in t he ever-increasing abundance and happiness for the Greek empire, almost as if Zeus himself showed respect to him. However, in his past, the wrongs which he has committed are too severe to be simply disregarded. Thus, the first difference between the role of the chorus appears: in Agamemnon, the chorus seems to, in addition to providing the basic historiography to set the scene, examine the happenings of the past and then make a general statement of the will of the gods as seen in these events in other words, they ponder on throughout the entire play as to whether Agamemnon is a good king or not. In addition, one may argue that their [the Chorus] wisdom seems apparent in their recognition of the justice inherent in the world. Indeed, throughout the novel Aeschylus purposely sets out the scenario such that an act of justice just further adds and enhances the injustice already present, where the narration and interpretation of such events affects the audience, urging them to consider the ethical conflict, engaging them into emotional involvement of the play. Aeschylus uses the Chorus to repeat several key words to help emphasize certain points to reveal the poets intent. As seen through the repetition of Zeus and telos two words which Clytamnestra continuously repeats in her prayers the theme of justice is integrated in the play. This adds to the tension, as to whether the ruling and authority of King Creon overrules that of the Gods. In comparison to Antigone, the Parados in Agamemnon is very long, but Aeschylus makes it vivid by using symbolism, similes and descriptive imagery. He divides the ode into chronological sections to help the audience focus on the narrative of the play, from the setting of the play, especially the abduction of Helen and the anger of the Gods to omens and sacrifice of Iphigenia. In varying the pace and rhythm of these sections Aeschylus highlights the choruss tone and their reaction to certain events; for example the metaphorical abduction of Helen and Zeuss anger over the betrayal of Menelaus hospitality. In conclusion, it is apprehensible that the role of the chorus in Antigone and Agamemnon share some similarities; they play crucial roles in enlightening the audience with the necessary background information thus setting the scene, and also developing the plot of the texts. Furthermore the Chorus in both texts reflects on many important aspects of Greek life Gods, omens, prophecies, sacrifices and justice this legal imagery is important in the play because it relates to Greek society. However, their roles differ in the two plays in such way that whilst in Antigone the chorus cowers from the King which in effect amplifies the tyrannical image of Creon and thus stirs up the audience sympathy with Antigone, whilst in Agamemnon the Chorus seem to analyze the good and bad of Agamemnon and provoke the audience to determine as to whether he is an honourable king.

Great Expectations Book Review

Great Expectations Book Review Great Expectations by Charles Dickens, first published in 1860, is a classic fictional novel. The novel doesnt really have a genre, possibly a drama or adventure, but its more like just his story so Id say just a normal fictional novel. The story is set in 1812 to 1840 in an English town surrounded by marshes, Pip lived outside the town, once receiving his fortune he moved to London though. The novel tells of Pip, a young orphan, and his story, his life. Pip was raised by his sister, only known as Mrs. Joe, and her husband Joe. In the beginning of the novel Pip is in a graveyard, where his parents are buried, and he is approached by a shady looking man, who is in fact an escaped convict, the convict asks Pip to bring him some tools so he can escape and Pip does this. This becomes very important in the novel. One day Pips uncle takes him to play at a rich, weird old ladys house, Miss Havisham, here Pip meets Estella, who he falls in love with, though Estella only toys with Pips feelings and doesnt like him at all. Pip then becomes Joes apprentice blacksmith, but Pip struggles as a blacksmith and isnt very happy. Then one day a lawyer called Jaggers appears and announces to Pip that he has been left a large fortune and needs to move to London immediately. Pip moves to London, meets many new people and has some fun. Then one night a convict breaks into Pips room, the same convict that Pip helped when he was just a little boy, and the convict, Magwitch reveals that he made a fortune in Australia and he gave Pip his mysterious fortune. Pip is shocked but decides that he will help Magwitch escape from London, and so they escape. Pip begins to like Magwitch as they get to know each other and Pip discovers many things about his past. As Pip is about to help Magwitch escape London Pip is nearly killed, Magwitch eventually does escape and kills somebody, he is sentenced to death and hence Pip loses his fortune. Pip then goes and works abroad as a merchant, many years later he returns home and meets his childhood love, Estella, they get together, with Pip believing they will be together forever. Two main characters of Great Expectations are Pip and Estella. Pip is the main character is the novel, he is also the narrator. In the beginning of the novel Pip is a young child but as the book goes on he ages and is an adult by the end. Pip is a good boy, he always tries to do what is right, and is quite sympathetic, e.g. helping Magwitch, always caring for Mr. Mrs. Joe. Pip is always looking to improve himself, whether it is learning to read and write as a boy, or learning to become a gentleman. He is of the lower classes, until he receives his fortune, and he desires to become an upper class, largely so he can impress the girl he admires, Estella. Estella is an important character in the novel. As a girl she had been raised by Miss Havisham to be cruel and heartless towards men. When she meets Pip she acts cruel and heartlessly, toying with his emotions. Though Pip still loves her, maybe he saw something inside her, or he just longed to be in the upper class. She then married an upper class man, who treated her badly, this would have changed her, gotten rid of her coldness and cruelty. So when Pip returns she is kind, and they get together. The themes in this novel include social class, aspiration, wealth and crime. I think that Charles Dickens in this novel was trying to say that social class doesnt matter, and that desire to become better and change should be congratulated. The novel is set in first person, with the narrator, Pip, also being the main character. The language used is pretty weird, with some old English sort of stuff in there. Once you get used to the language its pretty good and not that hard to follow. Overall, I thought this novel was pretty good, for an old book. The language used was a bit hard to get at times, and sometimes the story was a bit slow, but overall I thought it had a good story and I liked it. Estella was an interesting character I thought, normally the girls are loving and the guy isnt really interested or too busy doing other stuff, but this time Pip loved her and she was totally uninterested and cold. And the twist with Magwitch having supplied Pips fortune I thought was good as well. 7/10 on the scale of goodness.

Learning Case Adaptation :: Technology Case-Based Reasoning Essays

Learning Case Adaptation Computer models of case-based reasoning (CBR) generally guide case adaptation using a fixed set of adaptation rules. A difficult practical problem is how to identify the knowledge required to guide adaptation for particular tasks. Likewise, an open issue for CBR as a cognitive model is how case adaptation knowledge is learned. We describe a new approach to acquiring case adaptation knowledge. In this approach, adaptation problems are initially solved by reasoning from scratch, using abstract rules about structural transformations and general memory search heuristics. Traces of the processing used for successful rule-based adaptation are stored as cases to enable future adaptation to be done by case-based reasoning. When similar adaptation problems are encountered in the future, these adaptation cases provide task- and domain-specific guidance for the case adaptation process. We present the tenets of the approach concerning the relationship between memory search and case adaptation, t he memory search process, and the storage and reuse of cases representing adaptation episodes. These points are discussed in the context of ongoing research on DIAL, a computer model that learns case adaptation knowledge for case-based disaster response planning. 1 Introduction The fundamental principle of case-based reasoning (CBR) for problem-solving is that new problems are addressed by retrieving stored records of prior problem-solving episodes and adapting their solutions to fit new situations. In most case-based reasoning systems, the case adaptation process is guided by fixed case adaptation rules. Practical experience developing CBR systems has shown that it is difficult to establish appropriate case adaptation rules (e.g., Allemang, 1993; Leake, 1994). In defining adaptation rules, a key problem is the classic operationality/generality tradeoff that was first observed in research on explanation-based learning (e.g., Segre, 1987): Specific rules are easy to apply and are reliable, but only apply to a narrow range of adaptation problems; abstract rules span a broad range of potential adaptations but are often hard and expensive to apply because they do not provide task- and domain-specific guidance. In those CBR systems that do perform case adaptatio n, specific rules are often used, requiring that the developer perform difficult analysis of the task and domain to determine which rules will be needed. In practice, the problems of defining adaptation rules are so acute that many CBR applications simply omit case adaptation (e.g., Barletta, 1994). This paper presents a new method by which a case-based reasoning system can learn adaptation knowledge from experience.

Macbeths Conscience in Shakespeares Macbeth Essay -- essays research

William Shakespeare’s seventeenth century tragedy, Macbeth, tells the story of Macbeth, whose ambition leads him to murder his close friends. In the play, he is told that he will become king, but to speed up the process he is convinced to kill the current king, Duncan. Although he is portrayed as a vile, evil character, the scene before he murders Duncan, his thoughts after the murder, and his encounters with his friend’s ghost show that Macbeth truly is a man of conscience. After his wife encourages Macbeth to kill King Duncan when he visits their home, Macbeth truly considers the idea. Shakespeare allows his character to mull over the act and consequences in a soliloquy which, â€Å"not only weighs the possible bad practical consequences of his act but shows him perfectly aware, in a way an evil man would not be, of moral values involved: ‘First I am his kinsman and subject Strong as both against the deed, then as his host, Who should against his murderers shut the door Not bear the knife myself’† (Scott 156) Macbeth is fully aware of the crime he commits. Before comm... Macbeth's Conscience in Shakespeare's Macbeth Essay -- essays research William Shakespeare’s seventeenth century tragedy, Macbeth, tells the story of Macbeth, whose ambition leads him to murder his close friends. In the play, he is told that he will become king, but to speed up the process he is convinced to kill the current king, Duncan. Although he is portrayed as a vile, evil character, the scene before he murders Duncan, his thoughts after the murder, and his encounters with his friend’s ghost show that Macbeth truly is a man of conscience. After his wife encourages Macbeth to kill King Duncan when he visits their home, Macbeth truly considers the idea. Shakespeare allows his character to mull over the act and consequences in a soliloquy which, â€Å"not only weighs the possible bad practical consequences of his act but shows him perfectly aware, in a way an evil man would not be, of moral values involved: ‘First I am his kinsman and subject Strong as both against the deed, then as his host, Who should against his murderers shut the door Not bear the knife myself’† (Scott 156) Macbeth is fully aware of the crime he commits. Before comm...

The Union Reconstructed

1. Explain how blacks responded to their former masters after the Civil War had ended. After the Civil War had ended, blacks responded to their former masters in two different ways. They would either return to their former masters for work and every time they would leave the plantation they would go farther claiming they didn’t want to stay on the plantation forever. This caused them to continue to have communication with their former masters and never completely became independent. The second response was they would chose to become entirely independent to their masters. They would seek work in the city and began their new free lives. Often times they all struggled but they were now free. 2. Compare the economic conditions of the South with the economic conditions of the North during the period of Reconstruction. The economic conditions of the South compared to the North during the period of Reconstruction varied quite heavily. The South was limited in many ways after the war and had little to expand and prosper where as the North had everything from political power to trade. They made it so the South could not have much political power which in turn affected them economically. These limitations came from the fear of a repeated war due to the fact that there was still much conflict occurring within the country because of matters of freed slaves and other things. 3. Discuss how southern whites reacted to the emancipation of blacks during the period of Reconstruction. After the emancipation of blacks during the period of Reconstruction, southern whites had responses of both fear and anger. They could not imagine their world without slaves in bondage, often they felt it a hassle doing chores they normally didn’t do. This lead to the feelings of anger, due to their dependency on the slave labor they were now confused and society needed to adapt in order to function once again. In some cases though the slaves had become a part of the home and the white people would miss them as a family member, often times distraught. Aside from these things, a majority of whites began to be fearful of legal intermarriage, dreading the fact that the pure white race would be destroyed. 4. Discuss President Johnson’s plan for reconstruction and Congress’s response to that plan. President Johnson’s plan for reconstruction was simply to pardon and restore all the rights of property to any former Confederate who swore allegiance to the Constitution and the Union. With this he believed he had successfully reconstructed the south and did not do much more. With this they looked to ratify the thirteenth amendment to abolish slavery. With this plan all southern states completed the Reconstruction plan and then sent representatives to the Congress that occurred in December 1865. Congress refused to seat these new senators and a large controversy out broke. 5. Describe the general attitude of the Union soldiers stationed in the South during Reconstruction toward blacks. Support your answer by citing specific incidents that occurred during that period. The attitude of the Union soldiers stationed in the South during Reconstruction towards the blacks was quite in different. They just worked to keep them in control and try to transition them from slavery to freedom. In many cases they would treat them as inferior but as well never got as bad as their former masters. They were just making attempts to help the society function. Whether they were successful is a different story. But they tried and eventually had the communities put together like a white community. 6. Discuss Congress’s plan for reconstruction and explain what Congress hoped to achieve as a result of that plan. Congress’s plan for reconstruction mainly revolved around completely freeing the black communities. They created the fourteenth and fifteenth amendments to protect the black community and restricted the power of the executive branch. They were making decision that would benefit them in the long run. They would gain the black vote and be capable of gaining more power. So they limited the power of the former Confederates and attempted to have everything in their favor. 7. Discuss the economic conditions of poor blacks and poor whites during the period of Reconstruction. The economic conditions of poor blacks as well as whites differed. They both struggled financially due to crop shortages and other such things. However the blacks also were being aided by the Bureau of Freedom. They northern financed organization was created in order to help newly freed blacks to get on their feet. They helped them financially and helped with education. However they also in a sense forced blacks to accept low paying jobs when they didn’t want to. Even with this though they helped to get the blacks going in society. 8. Was the Republican administration that controlled the southern state governments during the period of Reconstruction a success or failure? The Republican administration that controlled the southern state governments during the period of Reconstruction was more of a success than it was a failure. They were able to stabilize the south in this time. They eliminated undemocratic features from prewar state constitutions as well as provided a universal male suffrage. They even loosened the requirements for holding office. They reconstructed the South financially and physically by overhauling tax systems and approving generous railroad and other capital investment bonds. With these accomplishments as well they set up a public school system in the south and stabilized it quite well. 9. Discuss the methods by which conservative white Democrats regained control of the southern state governments at the end of Reconstruction. The methods by which conservative white Democrats regained control of the southern state governments were very passive. They came in when the Republican Party had already begun to fail and economic problems began to surface. The Democrats began to discuss the new Grant scandals, unemployment and public works projects. To add to that they also discussed the currency and tariffs in order to show important issues. Discussion of these matters showed an interest in the country whether it was there or not and allowed the Democrats to win the popular vote.

Gilead by Marilynne Robinson Essay

In the novel Gilead, author Marilynne Robinson offers insight into the challenging process of forgiveness through the character, John Ames. As the narrator and protagonist, John provides the reader with an intriguing, first-person perspective on the difficult development from bitterness to forgiveness in his relationship with Jack Boughton, otherwise known as John Ames Boughton, the narrator’s namesake and godson. However, John does not make this progression by his own merit. First of all, he gains perspective into several situations that Jack faced in his life as an adult, and feels empathy for the man. Secondly, John receives wise guidance from his wife, Lila, thereby realizing that because Jack is an ordinary man like any other, he is in need of grace. And finally, through experiencing an abundance of spiritual direction, John realizes that because God shows mercy to Jack, he too must follow that loving example. In Marilynne Robinson’s novel Gilead, John Ames reaches a place of forgiveness and reconciliation with Jack Boughton only by opening his heart to empathizing with Jack’s situations, by following the guidance of his wife, and by observing and obeying the example of Jesus Christ. At an early point in the novel, the reader is given insight into the dissention John Ames feels towards Jack Boughton when he is told that Jack plans on returning home after several years of absence. John says in his narrative, â€Å"I don’t know how one boy could have caused so much disappointment without ever giving anyone any grounds for hope† (Robinson, 72). John’s words carry with them a degree of irritation that enables the reader to discern his dislike for Jack. However, one may begin to notice a shift in John’s attitude towards Jack as he continues to narrate his story, showing an increasing awareness that he must forgive Jack. This development occurs in small increments through several episodes in the story, but the biggest and most incredible shift happens when John learns of Jack’s life outside of Gilead. Jack informs John that he has a wife and a young son. â€Å"I was slightly at a loss, which he must have expected, and still I could tell it was an effort for him not to take offense. You see, the wife is a colored woman. That did surprise me† (Robinson 217). Jack explains the struggle he had in securing a stable home environment for his family, and the negative implications this had on how his wife’s family viewed their marriage. Throughout Jack’s narrative, it becomes clearer to John how Jack, after previous transgressions, has accepted responsibility for his family. This maturity positively affects John’s impression of Jack and he begins to see Jack in a new light. Jack continues to tell John of his endeavors in the hopes of receiving clarity regarding whether or not to tell his father about his family. However, when John is unable to offer any solid advice, Jack responds by saying, â€Å"‘No matter, Papa. I believe I’ve lost them, anyways’† (Robinson 232). John is understandably shocked in hearing this story and can find no other response but to wrap his arms around Jack and lovingly embrace him. â€Å"I could just feel the loneliness in him. Here I was supposed to be a second father to him. I wanted to say something to him to that effect, but it seemed complicated, and I was too tired to think through its possible implications. It might sound as if I were trying to establish some sort of equivalency between his failings and mine, when in fact I would have meant he was a better man than I ever thought he could be† (Robinson 231). John expresses a measure of empathy that he has never shown Jack before and acknowledges how he has allowed old grudges and transgressions to get in the way of forgiving this young man for far too long. Yet it was simply by listening to Jack’s story and by being vulnerable that John was able to reconcile with Jack. However, if it had not been for his wife, Lila, John may not have been at a place in his life to forgive Jack. At the beginning of his chronicles, John, in his stubbornness, shows no intention of forgiving Jack. Nonetheless, as formerly mentioned, the reader observes a shift in his thinking. For example, John records that in his encounters with Jack, he begins â€Å"trying to be a little more cordial to him than [he had previously] been† (Robinson 123). This shift does not occur simply out of a guilty conscious or out of a personal conviction to make things right, but through the aid of his second wife Lila. According to Gordon Leah, Lila â€Å"brings a totally fresh attitude into his ministry and attitudes and becomes a conduit for a new attitude to the one man who has been, as he says, a thorn in his heart for so long, Jack Boughton, the maverick son of his old friend Pastor Boughton† (55). At one point in the story line, Jack says to John, â€Å"So, Reverend, I would like to hear your views on the doctrine of predestination† (Robinson 149). John states that that specific question is probably his least favorite topic of conversation in the entire world, and â€Å"unable to answer the question and aware of the tension existing between [himself] and Jack†¦ prevaricates, until his wife, Lila, eventually, after some thought, answers the question with the simple words: ‘A person can change’† (Leah, 53). Although this comment may initially appear insignificant, Lila’s input into the conversation brings a fresh attitude to John’s closed-minded thoughts. Her words bring about the revelation that forgiveness is necessary in John’s relationship with Jack, and that he must be the one to initiate it. Lila’s words make John consider the fact that although Jack acted irresponsibly in the past, John must give him the chance to demonstrate that he has changed. The place of forgiveness that John Ames is eventually able to reach is not only a result of guidance from his wife, but, more importantly, is also the result of spiritual direction from God. John Ames shows a deeper understanding behind the importance of forgiveness in his life, when he reflects on the opportunity God gives him every time he encounters Jack. He says, â€Å"When you encounter another person, when you have dealings with anyone at all, it is as if a question is being put to you. So you must think, What is the Lord asking of me in this moment, in this situation? If you confront insult or antagonism, your first impulse will be to respond in kind. But if you think, as it were, This is an emissary sent from the Lord, and some benefit is intended for me, first of all the occasion to demonstrate my faithfulness, the chance to show that I do in some small degree participate in the grace that saved me, you are free to act otherwise than as circumstances would seem to dictate.† (Robinson 124) In this passage, John recognizes that while he has the ability to cling to his resentment and unresolved conflicts with Jack, the example of God’s mercy gives him a higher standard. He is being called to follow Christ’s example of bestowing grace to undeserving persons, and to ignore that calling is to reject the very grace that is shown to himself through God. He puts this idea beautifully into words when he says, â€Å"I think there must also be a prevenient courage that allows us to be brave – that is, to acknowledge that there is more beauty than our eyes can bear, that precious things have been put into our hands and to do nothing to honor them is to do great harm† (Robinson 246). John becomes aware of the fact that because God offers all humans unfathomable forgiveness for their sins, he too must forgive Jack. He does not say this in a tone of reluctance or in a haughty manner that would serve to prove his own spirituality, but as â€Å"a positive appreciation of the beauty of the other person, the object of God’s grace and of [his] forgiveness† (Leah 56). John is finally able to express his newfound understanding that Jack is just as worthy of his forgiveness as any other man, and acknowledges that this comprehension comes only through recognition of the grace and mercy God first showed us. When one observes the evolution from resentment to reconciliation that John Ames makes in his relationship with Jack Boughton through the novel Gilead, it seems to be a remarkable and almost impossible change of attitude. However, this development does not occur out of his own conviction to resolve his problems with Jack, or a need for reconciliation with the man, but through several other contributing factors. First, when John learns of the difficult adulthood Jack has faced, and witnesses how he has matured through these situations, he is able to show empathy towards him. Secondly, John’s wife, Lila, helps him appreciate the fact that Jack, like any other human being, is in need of forgiveness and mercy. And finally, John learns that just as God has forgiven Jack, he too must show mercy to this man. In Marilynne Robinson’s novel Gilead, John Ames is able to forgive and reconcile with Jack Boughton through a process of opening his heart to understanding Jack’s story, being guided by his wife on a path of compassion and empathy, and by realizing that he is called to follow God’s example in showing mercy and forgiveness to the sinners around him. Works Cited Robinson, Marilynne. Gilead. Trade pbk. ed. Toronto: Harper Perennial, 2005. Leah, Gordon. â€Å"‘A Person Can Change’ Grace, Forgiveness And Sonship In Marilynne Robinson’s Novel Gilead.† Evangelical Quarterly 80.1 (2008): 53-58.

U.S.-China Trade

The reemergence of China as a great power is arguably the single most important development in the post-Cold War world. The rapid economic growth of the People's Republic of China (PRC) over the past decade, coupled with its high level of defense spending, have stimulated much interest as well as trepidation among policy-makers and analysts across the world. Although the continued augmentation of Chinese power is not predetermined, the profound effects of China's growing process cannot be underestimated.When analyzing a state's trade expectations one must also take into account the effects of diplomacy and bargaining, as Copeland suggests. A state can make some economic, political and military concessions to induce its trading partners to relax trade restrictions, thus raising its expectations for future trade. If the price for a higher level of trade is seen to be reasonable, the state would be willing to pay it, but if the price is unacceptable because it would undermine the state' s `internal stability or its external power position', there would be very little that the state could do to improve its trade expectations.If Chinese decision-makers' expectations for future trade are high, they will be less likely to use force to deal with unresolved disputes with neighboring countries. If, however, they have a negative view of their future trading environment, they will be likely to take measures, including military actions, to remove any obstacles that might forestall the pursuit of great-power status (Segal, 70). For the moment, China's expectations of future trade are by and large optimistic, but there is evidence of growing Chinese suspicion of a Western `conspiracy' to contain China which may alter Beijing's future perceptions.To ensure that the rise of China will not cause regional and global instability, the outside world should seek to integrate China into the international community by pursuing policies that will have a positive influence on China's expe cted value of trade. Since the late 1970s China has gradually emerged as a major trading nation in the world, and its economic and trade relations with most countries have broadened considerably. Indeed, China has been actively involved in global economic activities, and is fully integrated into the Asia-Pacific economy.The PRC is now a member of most major international and regional economic organizations, including the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, the Asian Development Bank, and APEC. (Segal, 70) From 1980 to 1997 the Chinese government approved 162 foreign financial institutions to develop business in China. (Segal, 70) Over 200 of the world's top 500 companies have now invested in the country. (Segal, 70) As a result, there has been a huge growth in China's foreign trade over the past two decades. From 1978 to 1997 China's export grew from US$9. 8 billion to US$182. 7 billion, and its imports grew from US$10.9 billion to US$142. 4 billion. Between 1983 and 1997 a ctual foreign direct investment in China increased from US$916 million to US$45. 3 billion(Segal, 70) In 1997, according to the World Trade Organization, China became one of the top 10 trading countries in the world. (Segal, 70) China has also benefited from its involvement in a regional division of labor and economic cooperation in East Asia. It is integrated into a number of sub-regional economic groupings or ‘growth triangles' such as the Hong Kong-Guangdong-Shenzhen triangle and the Northeast China-Korea-Japan triangle.In addition, China is closely involved in the development of two new sub-regional groupings: the Yellow Sea Economic Zone that includes Liaoning and Shandong provinces, Japan and South Korea; and the Tumen River project that seeks to promote economic cooperation between China, Japan, North Korea, South Korea, Mongolia and Russia. (Rachman, 129) No doubt, China's integration into the world economy has brought about much benefit to the country, but it has also increased Chinese vulnerability in a world of growing interdependence. Indeed, foreign direct investment has become the single most important source of foreign capital for the PRC.(Rachman, 132)It is estimated that ‘foreign investment may now account for one-quarter of all Chinese exports'. (Rachman, 132)In 1996 the total value of foreign-funded firms' import and export trade reached US$137. 1 billion accounting for 47% of the national total of foreign trade. (Rachman, 136)According to a Beijing Review report, 18 million people, about 10% of China's non-farming population, are employed by foreign-funded firms. The investment by these firms covers a whole range of areas that are vital to Chinese economic modernization, including infrastructure, energy, communication and high-tech projects.(Rachman, 143)The Chinese government has also relied heavily on foreign investment to develop the central and western regions of China that are still very poor. In 1996, for example, a total amount of USS 1. 34 billion of foreign government loans was utilized for 69 projects in these underdeveloped regions. In addition, 125 key projects in the PRC are supported by foreign government loans that include the construction of metropolitan underground railways, power plants, airports, telephone networks, and other large-scale development plans. (Rachman, 171)In the past decade China has increased its foreign borrowings substantially. Its total external debt is believed to have risen from US$24,000 million in 1987 to US$116,280 million in 1996. (Rachman, 183)Besides, many of China's reform projects, such as enterprise restructuring, infrastructure improvement, financial reform, poverty reduction, human development and environmental protection, are currently supported by the World Bank. (Lieberthal, 36) Of all the major sectors of the Chinese economy, energy is probably the most critical one in terms of sustaining the PRC's modernization program.In this sector the role of forei gn capital is becoming more significant. For example, a joint venture has been established at the Pingshao coal mine, and the construction of a power station in Guangxi Zhuang is financed entirely by foreign investment. In the areas of petroleum and natural gas, a greater effort has also been made to attract foreign capital. By 1997, China had signed 126 contracts with 65 foreign oil companies. (Lieberthal, 36) Moreover, the progress of Chinese reform is dependent on the availability of advanced foreign technology and equipment.The contract value of Chinese technology imports amounted to US$159. 23 million in 1997. Indeed, imported technologies play an important part in major Chinese industries ranging from energy, electronics, computer software to telecommunications, information and other high-tech industries. (Lieberthal, 36) Clearly, Chinese leaders are aware that the success of China's economic modernization rests ultimately with its access to the global market and with inflows of external funding.If, for political or security reasons, the world were to reduce the level of economic interactions with or apply trade sanctions against China, it would have a devastating effect on Chinese economic development. For the moment, China's expectations of future trade with both its Asian neighbors and Western nations are by and large positive. In a speech to an academic symposium in Beijing, Chen Jian, a senior official of the Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, said that ‘the international situation has moved at a speed faster than expected in a direction favorable to China †¦.The ongoing reform and opening up policies and the economic development in China†¦ are based on the judgement that world peace can be maintained and a new world war will not erupt for the near future'. (Yahuda, 22) Similarly, Wu Yi, Minister of Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation, has noted: ‘We are immersed in the irreversible general trend toward worldwide economic integration†¦ economic cooperation with various countries makes it easier than any time in the past to reach a common view, and can be carded out in a wider area and at a higher starting point.This in turn portends that possibility for successful cooperation is much greater in the future'. (Yahuda, 22) This type of optimistic assessment of the future trading environment is echoed by many Chinese leaders, officials and scholars. (Yahuda, 56) Despite the recent financial turmoil in East and South East Asia, they believe that the economic dynamism in the Asia-Pacific will continue into the twenty-first century and that China will benefit from further economic growth and cooperation in the region.â€Å"For example, citing the view of a Chicago professor and Nobel Prize winner, a Chinese commentator maintains that ‘the prospects of most rapidly growing economic entities of East Asia are still bright. † ‘Even if the economy of these countries stops growing in the c oming five years', it is argued, ‘their average speed of economic increase in the next 25 years will surpass that of the world'. (Yahuda, 101) In any case, Chinese leaders know that the potential market and business opportunities that the PRC can offer to the outside world are so attractive that no country would like to miss them.(Yahuda, 193) It is therefore unlikely that any countries would want to sever trade relations with China in the near future. To raise its expectations for future trade China has been and will be willing to make economic and political concessions when negotiating contracts and trade agreements with its trading partners. Thus, the outside world will have some leverage to steer China in a certain direction, and it should take the opportunity to encourage further economic reform, openness and trade liberalization in the country.As liberals rightly argue, economic liberalization will gradually lead to greater political liberalization and democratization in China that will, in turn, help preserve peace and stability in the Asia-Pacific region. However, the international community must be patient with the pace of change in China and more sensitive to Chinese security perceptions. This is not to say that the outside world should accede to any Chinese demands or policies.On the contrary, it should be prepared to raise its concern over particular Chinese policies, debate with China on issues of fundamental disagreement, and stand firm on matters of principle. For example, the outside world must not ignore human rights issues in China for the sake of short-term commercial benefits. Western countries should try to persuade the Chinese government to improve its human rights record through dialogue and diplomatic channels rather than by economic coercion.They must recognize that the process of democratization in China will be a lengthy and thorny one, given the lack of democratic tradition in Chinese history. An evolutionary path toward democ racy is preferable to a violent change of regime in China that will be likely to produce an unstable and ineffective government which would be incapable of handling the crises and upheavals associated with rapid political transformation in such a vast country. A chaotic China could not possibly pursue a rational and coherent policy toward other countries.In this regard, the warning of some liberal scholars of the linkages between democratic transition and war should be heeded. Whether the reemergence of China as a great power in the post-Cold War international system is caused by structural factors (as the realist argues) or by unit-level decisions (as the liberal suggests), the challenge that China presents to the rest of world is formidable. The best way of abating the likelihood of military conflict between the great powers, as Copeland suggests, is to `alter leaders' perceptions of the future trading environment in which they operate'.(Harris, 151) China's current expectations o f future trade are, on the whole, positive, but there are growing suspicions among Chinese leaders and intellectuals of external forces seeking to `contain' China. Such a fear could magnify at a time when nationalistic sentiment is rising in Chinese society (Harris, 151) that might lead to low expectations of future trade. To ensure that China's rise will not cause regional and global instability, the outside world should pursue policies that would enhance Chinese decision-makers' confidence in their future trading environment.This will not be a simple task due to China's innate distrust of other great powers as a result of its unpleasant encounters with Japan and Western powers in the nineteenth century. Given the complexity of Chinese domestic politics and enormous ideological and institutional constraints, China may not always respond to external efforts positively, (Harris, 151) but if China's trading partners hope to integrate the country into the international community peacef ully, they must do what they can to raise PRC leaders' expectations for future trade.In the case of China, it has made some economic and political concessions to induce the outside world to trade with and invest in China. On most issues, Chinese leaders find the price of higher trade level reasonable and are willing to make compromise. The concept of `one country, two systems', for example, was basically formulated to assure the Western world that China's priority was economic development. In order to retain the confidence of foreign investors in Hong Kong, Chinese leaders have promised that the territory's capitalist system will remain unchanged for at least 50 years from 1997.(Harris, 151) China's decision to shelve temporarily the issue of sovereignty in the South China Sea also reflects its desire to maintain harmonious relations with the United States of America that are propitious for China's trading environment. Works Cited Gerald Segal, `Tying China into the international sy stem', Survival 37(2), (Summer 2004), p. 70. Gideon Rachman, `Containing China', The Washington Quarterly 19(1), (Winter 1995), p. 132. Hans J. Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace, revised 5th edition (New York: Alfred A.Knopf, 1978), p. 29. Kenneth Lieberthal, `A new China strategy', Foreign Affairs 74(6), (November/December 1995), p. 36. Michael Yahuda, ‘How much has China learned about interdependence? ‘, in David S. G. Goodman and Gerald Segal, eds. , China Rising: Nationalism and Interdependence (London: Routledge, 1997), p. 22. `Stay back, China', The Economist, (16 March 1996), p. 15. Stuart Harris, ‘China's role in the WTO and APEC', in Goodman and Segal, eds. , China Rising, p. 151.

Gerontology and Social Exchange Theory Essay

Introduction The fundamental biological problem that all theories of aging seek to explain was stated very elegantly in 1957 by Williams when he wrote, â€Å"It is indeed remarkable that after a seemingly miraculous feat of morphogenesis, a complex metazoan should be unable to perform the much simpler task of merely maintaining what is already formed.† The difficulty in attempting to establish an understanding of aging is that it is not a single physiological process. It is multifaceted and hierarchical in its expression with subtle changes occurring simultaneously at the molecular, cellular, tissue and organ levels. The variety of characterizes many species, particularly humans, and the complexity of environmental interactions results in an enormous phenotypic variability being associated with aging. This variability is frequently confounded by the symptoms of underlying pathology and invariably increases between individuals with aging. First Transformation of Theory The beginning of social gerontology began as general perspectives on aging rather than as actual scientific theories. Prior to 1961, social gerontology attempted to explain how individuals adjusted to aging from role and activity perspectives. Growing old was seen as an inevitable process that led to the development of problems an individual experienced overtime. It wasn’t until 1961, with the development of disengagement theory, that there was an actual theory being used as a basis for scientific research. A basic assumption of the theory was that all societies have to transfer power from an aging population to a younger one. Disengagement attempted to explain this process of power transfer and complimented gerotrancendence, another theory from what is considered to be the first transformation of theory. Gerotrancendence follows the beliefs of Jung and Erikson that as a person ages, they withdraw from the external world to an internal world focused on spirituality, wisdom, se lf-acceptance and purpose. Both disengagement and gerotrancendence theories attempted to explain what social gerontologists thought aging should be. They did not try to develop a universal theory to explain the variety of experiences of people as they age (Hooyman & Kiyak, 2011). In the case of disengagement, this withdrawal from power was  believed to be a universal experience that transcended gender and culture. Death was inevitable; decline in abilities was probably. It was only natural that others would have lowered expectations for aging individuals. In the case of gerotrancendence, this withdrawal resulted from an individual not achieving ego identity. An individual would either attain this ego identity, a positive regard for their life, or withdraw as a symptom of despair (Andrus Gerontology Center; University of Southern California, 2005) A third theory of the time period was continuity theory, which postulated that â€Å"individuals tend to maintain a consistent pattern of behavior as they age, substituting similar types of roles for lost ones and keeping typical ways of adapting to the environment† (Hooyman & Kiyak, 2011, p. 319). Individual satisfaction was dependent on how consistent a person was able to maintain the same patterns of behavior. Though attempting to challenge previous theories based on activity and disengagement perspectives, it also did not address any personality differences among aging individuals, nor did it address any political, social, historical or cultural influences on the experience of aging (Hooyman & Kiyak, 2011). It is interesting to note that though continuity theory attempted to challenge the activity theory, it was similar to the activity perspective that that was a positive relationship between social roles and life satisfaction (Howe, 1987). Alternative Theoretical Perspectives Alternative theories based on a symbolic interaction perspective were developed to address external issues affecting aging while also attempting to connect the disparate theories of activity and disengagement. Symbolic interaction perspective is based on the premise that as an individual interacts with his environment; his experiences of aging are shaped by these interactions. Three of these alternative theories are: age stratification theory, social exchange theory, and the political economy of aging. There are many similarities and differences between these theories. Age stratification and political economy theories are based on the belief that as people age, the differences in their aging experience is significantly influenced by stratification. Age stratification acknowledges the differences experienced by those sharing a similar history. Similarities among life events and societal changes experienced by these historical  cohorts affect these individuals in similar ways. In contrast, political economy theory rejects all previous theories and posits that differences between individual experiences of aging are determined by social class. Socioeconomic and political factors determine the disparity between different groups in an aging population. Social exchange theory is based on an economic cost-benefit model of social interaction. It could be said that there is a similarity between social exchange and political economy in that disparities experienced are social in nature. Whereas in social exchange theory, an individual is thought to be able to influence or change one’s environment as one adapts, political economy believes that inequalities are built into the political system. Political economy critiques the current system which lulls the individual into believing one has to adapt to circumstances, rather than changing society’s structural inequalities. Of the alternative theories, social exchange is the only one to address the influence of culture on the experience of aging. Social exchange theory believes that people interact with those whom they believe the rewards outweigh the costs of the relationship (Taylor, Peplau, & Sears, 2006). Though social exchange theory acknowledges that though a person may no longer have the same economic value when older, that the older individual possesses other non-materialistic assets such as wisdom, love, and time for service. As our society modernized, these assets have been overlooked by a culture that now places importance on efficiency and productivity (Hooyman & Kiyak, 2011). The Second Transformation The second transformation was developed in the early 1980’s. This transformation includes the following approaches: social phenomenology, social constructivism, and social constructionism. Both of which discuss the influence of social perceptions, rather than actual facts. Social phenomenology is an interpretative approach to an individual’s social life on a day to day basis. The purpose is to gain a better understanding of the aging process and how it is influenced by social definitions and social structures. This approach can be a very helpful guide when gaining understanding of an individual’s social life, depending on how the information is obtained. The outcomes for this approach will be solely based on the interpretations of the individual (s) obtaining this information. Not  everyone has the same social definition and or social structures, which could result in numerous interpretations (Hooyman& Kiyak, 2011). Social Constructionism and Social Constructiv ism are both phenomenological approaches that focus on social phenomena development, but are very different. Social constructionism is the sociological perspective and focuses on the social contexts and structural development. This approach would view how an individual structures their life which shapes their old age experiences. Social constructivism is interpreting the meaning of an individual’s social context, psychologically. From this approach the researchers want to know more information on why a person chooses a specific context and how an individual does decide a specific social context (Hooyman& Kiyak, 2011). Critical Theory and Feminist Perspectives are also influenced by phenomenology. Critical theory refers to the biomedical model of aging, but focuses on structural and institution factors. This theory is suggesting that those (older people) participating in research studies should be allowed to come up with the questions they are requested to answer. For instance, research conducted regarding retirement would recommend a series of questions complied by other retirees (Hooyman& Kiyak, 2011). The Feminist Theory concludes that age related research outcomes involve inequalities against wom en. This theory suggests that women haven’t been included in research studies as they should be. It’s even been stated that men have been favored over women. Due to these inequalities all other theories of aging are insufficient. These inequalities also include gender with race, social class, sexual orientation, and disabilities, all of which aren’t discussed as much as they should be (Hooyman& Kiyak, 2011). These theories are all based on assumptions, rather than actual facts. The text states, â€Å"To positivist, phenomenological theories may seem impossible to test and closer to assumptions about meanings than propositions that can be proved or disprove† (Hooyman & Kiyak, 2011, p. 326).Society has a huge impact on our perceptions of life, which aren’t consistent and change over time. A huge factor of perception is that it’s not necessarily reality and lacks proven facts. If the information being evaluated isn’t consistent, lacks factual information, and is based on assumptions it shouldn’t be used for practice, but could be a beneficial guiding tool (Hooyman& Kiyak, 2011). Postmodernist Theory Postmodernist theory represents a decisive break with modernity or a positivist scientific approach to an â€Å"objective† truth (Hooyman & Kiyak, 2011, p. 331). Postmodernism focuses on how our world appears today, rather than focusing on how an individual wishes for the world to be seen. Postmodernist theory reviews the whole of a person’s experiences during their life time and examines the body not from a biological standpoint, but rather by everyday social and cultural practices built overtime to construct the identity of the individual. The individual will physically change overtime, but their essential identity develops based on achievements and future goals. An area that continues to develop in postmodernist theory focuses on biomedical technology that can provide options for reconstructing failing body parts to slow the process of aging. Postmodernist and social constructivist theories share the link of knowledge as a socially constructed element and each indivi dual’s social life events create who they are. This diversity of perspectives alerts social gerontologists to be concerned with the connections between scientific inquiry and the social milieu at particular influential points in time (Putney, Alley, & Bengston, 2005, p. 95). Both areas focus on an individual’s construct based on a cultural framework of customs, traditions, and beliefs. Social constructionism and postmodernist take into account how individual experiences alter an individual’s aging process allowing the person to develop their own reality. Each area stresses the importance of the individual’s social framework to help sustain their self-worth as they age. In contrast to political economy of aging, postmodernists focus on the well-being of an individual not from a social class or political standing, but from their life experiences. Structural factors of gender, sexual orientation, functional ability, race, age and class can have negative effects that limit an individual’s later opportunities. According to Hooyman & Kiyak (2011), these structural factors—often institutionalized and reinforced by public policy—limit the opportunities and choices of later life, resulting in cumulative disadvantages in o ld age, which are further exacerbated by retirement (Hooyman & Kiyak, 2011, p. 323). These differences force aging individuals to change themselves and their lifestyles to fit income, health and physical care policy constraints forced  on them. Increased reduction in public health and social services creates a barrier for individuals to affectively age and receive proper care. Postmodernist theory follows the same framework of individual aging. It develops with the individual to meet their needs on a personal level and takes into consideration what the body and mind have both gone through as they have aged. According to Powell (2011), older people are usually ‘fixed’ to roles without resources which does not do justice to the richness of their individual experiences and multi-facets of their personalities (Powell, 2001, p. 6). Postmodernism clearly focuses on the importance of an individual’s ability to develop overtime through experience and uses biomedicine to provide options for maintaining an individual’s physical body. This provides a solid framework for aging that meets the needs of an individual from both physical and mental capacities. Conclusion While these are the dominant theories, many other theories are in varying stages of development. In addition, theories are constantly being tested and modified as new data from aging research emerges. It is only in the last half-century that researchers have begun to focus their attention on older adults as a population worthy of special consideration. While earlier theories of aging were few in number, narrowly focused, and generally negative, recent theories have emerged that establish aging as a multidimensional process. These theories view aging as characterized by positive as well as negative qualities and are more interactive in nature. They emphasize the interaction of biological, physical, and social factors in each individual’s age trajectory, and attempt to explain how older adults can minimize the negative and maximize the positive aspects of aging, in order to more fully enjoy the increased life span that comes with living in the 21st century. References Andrus Gerontology Center; University of Southern California. (2005). The Psychology of Aging: Lecture Part II. Retrieved from http://gero.usc.edu/AgeWorks/core_courses/gero500_core/psychology_lect/index_a.htm Hooyman, N. R., & Kiyak, H. A. (2011). Social Gerontology, ninth edition. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Howe, C. Z. (1987). Selected Social Gerontology Theories and Older Adult Leisure Involvement: A Review of the